International Accounting Journal of Economics

Questions: Analyse the financial performance of the two companies based on your calculations, identifying and discussing the purposes of calculating those ratios and the weaknesses of ratios analysis.? Your analysis must contain an introduction, a recommendation of how these areas can be improved in the future, and a conclusion detailing the results of your analysis.? Answers: Introduction The study of the report will enable the reader to understand the differences between the businesses status of Sainsbury and Tesco. Moreover, the report also consists of a certain part that has shown the calculation of the various financial ratios of both the firms. This evaluation of the financial ratios has enabled the learner to understand the current financial position of both the firms. The understanding has been elaborated within the report and the leading company among these two has been highlighted as well. Since 1869, Sainsbury has been expanded to 523 convenience stores and 583 supermarkets in the UK; more importantly, Sainsburys has employed around 157,000 employees (Sainsburys.co.uk, 2015). Sainsburys is one of the leading retail stores in the UK dealing with general goods and groceries (Sainsburys.co.uk, 2015). The retail sector in United Kingdom is essential for the country economy, which has profound impacts on the country as a whole. ESRC recorded that in 2013, 20% of United Kingdoms GDP is accounted by the retail sector. Particularly, Sainsburys and ASDA are the two of renowned companies in the retail sector. Three important people who are Mr. David Tyler, the chairperson, Mr. Justin King, the CEO, and Mr. John Roger, the CFO, run the management team of Sainsburys. Besides Sainsburys, Tesco is a famous British multinational retailer which also deals with general merchandise and groceries (Tesco.com, 2015). Analysing the financial performance of Sainsbury and Tesco based on the calculations The analyzing and calculating of the financial ratios of the firm will show the exact sections of both the firm that are having various loopholes (Tamari, 2011). Moreover, the calculation of the financial ratios of Sainsbury and Tesco has been compared below along with graphs, which will extract the status of both these companies. Meanwhile, the profit margins as well as the revenue generation of these firms can also be evaluated by evaluating the calculated rations of the firm. The calculation will also determine that which firm is in a better position on the current time. This report deals with the assessment of both companies performances in the last three years based on ratio analysis. Regarding employment, Tesco has recruited almost 530,000 employees who are committed to the provision of best shopping experience for their consumer and community as a whole (Tesco.com, 2015). Tesco has been operating for almost 100 years, and it has expanded more branches domestically and internat ionally (Tesco.com, 2015). The analysing of the financial performance of Sainsbury and Tesco based on the calculations are stated below: Profitability Ratios (Operating Profit margin) Refer to appendix 1 The profitability of all the firm within the industry have been affected due to the massive amount of increased competition in the recent era. This increase in competition has also affected well renowned firms like Sainsbury and Tesco. The analysis of the operating profit margin of the firms has been stated below: Operating Profit margin TESCO Sainsbury's 2012 14.55% 12.66% 2013 16.22% 11.03% 2014 0.69% 9.22% Table 1: Operating Profit margin (%) (Source: Created by author) Graph1: Operating Profit margin (%) (Source: Created by author) The study of the above table and graph quiet clearly shows that Tesco have been conducting business in a more effective manner than Sainsbury, which have changed drastically in the year of 2014. This can be said as the evaluation shows that the Operating Profit margin of Tesco have dropped to 0.69 % in 2014, while the Operating Profit margin of Sainsbury have gone up to 9.22%. Therefore, it can be said that the Sainsbury have increased its Operating Profit margin massive extent and have crossed Tesco by 8.53 %. On the other hand, Return on Capital Employed is used to indicate to the amount of success that the firm has made by using its long- term assets. The ROCE ratio can help the company to do well in future profitability. Therefore, this can measure the companys failure or success that depends on its target ROCE that has already been set. Return on Capital Employed= (PBIT/ Capital Employed) * 100 (Ziegel and Rudas, 2009) Due to the greater market share, Tesco had a better performance compared to Sainsburys in the last three year. Regardless the increase of Tescos ROCE in 2012, Tesco was seen not be able to stabilize its ROCE while Sainsbury has performed equally well to alleviate its profit every year. Therefore, it can be commented that Sainsburys was able to utilize its long - term reserves efficiently to produce more income than compared to Tesco. Profitability Ratios (Gross Profit margin) Refer to appendix 2 The gross profit margin shows the earnings of the organization after considering the cost incurred by the firm in producing goods and services. Gross Profit Margin (GPM) = (Gross profit/ Sale Revenue) * 100 (Romagnoli, 2011) Gross Profit margin (%) TESCO Sainsbury's 2012 7.55% 4.99% 2013 7.99% 6.11% 2014 5.97% 7.02% Table 2: Gross Profit margin (%) (Source: Created by author) Graph 2: Gross Profit margin (%) (Source: Created by author) The above graph and table has been obtained by calculating the Gross Profit margin (%) of both the firms, which quiet clearly shows that Tesco have beaten Gross Profit margin (%) of Sainsbury in the years of 2012 and 2013. However, the graph also highlights the fact that Tesco have not been able to hold onto its Gross Profit margin (%) in the year of 2014. The picture of this fact gets even clear as the above graph shows that Sainsbury have a Gross Profit margin (%) of 7.02 % in the year 2014, while the Gross Profit margin (%) of Tesco is calculated at 5.97% only. Therefore, it can be commented that Sainsbury have beaten Tesco in the element of Gross Profit margin (%) by 1.05%. Profitability Ratios (Net Profit margin) Refer to appendix 2 Net profit margin calculates the amount of pound of sales a firm keeps earning, which means that a 4% profit margin of company shows that company has a net income of 0.04 pound. Net Profit Margin = (Net Income/ Sale Revenue) * 100 (Prentice, 2010) Net Profit margin (%) TESCO Sainsbury's 2012 5.55% 2.97% 2013 5.11% 3.07% 2014 1.02% 1.78% Table 3: Net Profit margin (%) (Source: Created by author) Graph 2: Gross Profit margin (%) (Source: Created by author) The net profit margins of firms enable us to understand the exact financial position of the firm within the market. The calculation of the Net profit margin of Tesco and Sainsbury quiet clearly shows that the amount of profit earned by Tesco in the year of 2012 and 2013 is much higher than that earned by Sainsbury. However, Sainsbury has shown a major come back in the year of 2014 as they beat Tesco in the section of Net profit margin by 0.76 %. Liquidity Ratios (Current ratio) Refer to appendix 3 The current ratio signifies the capabilities of the company to transform its assets into cash. Current Ratio = Current Assets/ Current liabilities (Muro, 2012) Current ratio TESCO Sainsbury's 2012 65.17% 57.98% 2013 63.98% 69.12% 2014 66.10% 67.97% Table 4: Current ratio (%) (Source: Created by author) Graph 4: Current ratio (%) (Source: Created by author) The study of the above graph quiet clearly shows that the Tesco in the year of 2012 had an increased current ratio of 65.17 %,, which was much more than Sainsbury who had 57.98 %. Moreover, the year of 2013 was the turning year for the Sainsbury as they increased the current ratio of the firm to 69.12 %, which was more than Tescos 63.98%. The year of 2014 was even better for Sainsbury as they again beat Tesco by a margin of 1.87 %. Liquidity Ratios (Acid - test ratio) Refer to appendix 4 Acid - test ratio or quick ratio is an indicator that defines whether a company has sufficient short-term assets to cover its immediate liabilities without selling inventory. Acid - test ratio = (Current assets Inventories) / Current liabilities (Ketz et al. 2010) TESCO Sainsbury's 2012 49.03% 31.14% 2013 44.97% 35.01% 2014 46.04% 30.02% Table 5: Acid - test ratio (%) (Source: Created by author) Graph 5: Acid - test ratio (%) (Source: Created by author) However, Sainsbury have been able to beat Tesco in many sections over the last two years, which have been a massive achievement for the firm. However, situations are different when the Acid - test ratio of the firms are calculated, which is highlighted in the graphs. The calculations show that the Acid - test ratio of Tesco is recorded at 46.04. % in the year of 2014, while the Acid - test ratio of Sainsbury has been recorded at 30.02% in the same year. However, it should also be noticed that not only in the year of 2014 but also in 2012 and 2013, the Acid - test ratio of Sainsbury has been quiet low than Tesco. Efficiency Ratio (Asset turnover) Refer to appendix 4 The assets turnover ratio is used to define how well the company deploys its assets. The amount of sales or revenues generated per pound of assets. Generally, the higher the ratio, the better it is, since it denotes that company is making more revenues per pound of asset (Heilbron, 2011). The given figure describes that Sainsburys ability to utilize its assets was more effective than Tescos. Both companies assets turnover ratios were consistent for the last three years, which was good for the two companies, but Sainsburys was the exceptional one. Asset Turnover = Sale revenue / Total assets Efficiency Ratio (Receivables collection period) The collection period is the calculation of the period of how long it takes customers to pay for the credit sales. The period of collection also equals the average accounts receivable divided by the credit sales (Demonstratingvalue.org, 2015). TESCO Sainsbury's 2012 44 39 2013 54 38 2014 61 41 Table 6: Receivables collection period (%) (Source: Created by author) The study of the above table shows that Sainsbury is more advanced in this section than Tesco. The calculation in the year of 2014 shows that Tesco has a average collection period of 61, which is 41 in case of Sainsbury. Therefore, it can be said that Sainsbury is far ahead of Tesco in this section. Efficiency Ratio (inventory turnover period) Refer to appendix 5 The inventory turnover is measured by days that explain the duration that needed to transform the companys inventories into sales. In this regards, the less number of the days, the better performance of the firm is. Inventory Turnover (days) = (Inventory / Cost of sales) * 365 (Chaudhuri, 2011) TESCO Sainsbury's 2012 20 14 2013 21 15 2014 23 15 Table 7: Inventory turnover period (%) (Source: Created by author) Graph 7: Inventory turnover period (%) (Source: Created by author) The calculation of the inventory turnover period of both the firms has been represented above in the graph, which quiet clearly shows that Tesco is having higher inventory period in all the three years consistently than Sainsbury. Gearing Ratio Refer to appendix 6 Gearing ratio is a financial ratio that measures the financial leverage, signifying the degree to which a firm's activities are funded by owner's funds versus creditor's funds. Gearing Ratio = Long - term Debt + Preference Shares / Equity * 100 (Bourke, 2009) TESCO Sainsbury's 2012 59% 51% 2013 56% 53% 2014 63% 52% Table 8: Gearing Ratio (%) (Source: Created by author) Graph 8: Gearing Ratio (%) (Source: Created by author) The gearing ratio of both the firms has been calculated at a stable position but the gearing ratio of Tesco has been greater than the grading ratio of Sainsbury consistently from 2012 to 2014. The lowest difference between the gearing ratios of these two firms was in 2013, which was only 3%. Interest cover The interest cover measures the amount of availability of operating profit for covering interest payable. In addition, stated that the lower level of operating profit coverage, the higher the risk to lender and shareholder. Interest Cover = Operating profit / Interest Expense TESCO Sainsbury's 2012 7.15 7.29 2013 9.33 7.11 2014 6.88 6.81 Table 9: Interest Cover (Source: Created by author) Graph 9: Interest Cover (Source: Created by author) The study of the above table and graphs quiet clearly shows that both the firms is quiet capable of covering their interest payable with the operating profit. The highest interest cover of Tesco has been recorded at 9.33. Meanwhile, the highest interest cover of Sainsbury has been recovered at 7.29 %. Discussing and identifying the purposes of calculating the ratios of Sainsbury and Tesco The financial ratios, which are also known as the Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) of the firm plays a massive role in extracting the actual financial condition of the firm within the market. These ratios will also enable the management of Tesco and Sainsbury to understand the areas that the firm is lagging behind and needs improvement within the minimum possible time (Bonett and Price, 2015). Moreover, these will also enable the management of Tesco and Sainsbury to draw and plan a certain action that will be taken by them in the next financial year to cover up all the identified loopholes. Therefore, it can be commented that the KPIs of a firm has the capability to highlight the exact current financial condition of the firm, which will also help the management to draw up certain financial strategies. Weaknesses of ratios analysis The weaknesses of the ratio analysis are stated below: Many large firms operate various divisions in different industries. For these companies it is difficult to find a meaningful set of industry-average ratios (Alzubaidi, 2014). The analysis of ratio of the financial statements do not always provide the exact amount, which makes the firm to assume the approximate value of that particular section, Inflation may have badly distorted a company's balance sheet. In this case, profits will also be affected. Therefore, a ratio analysis of one company over time or a comparative analysis of companies of different ages must be interpreted with judgment (Baur and Leuenberger, 2011). Conclusion The study of the entire report quiet clearly states that Tesco have outperformed Sainsbury in the year of 2012. The scenario have changed drastically form the year of 2013 as the study highlights that Sainsbury has various sections that are superior than Tesco in the year of 2013 and 2014 as well. Therefore, it can be said that the study has educated the learner regarding the various financial ratios of Tesco and Sainsbury along with its importance in evaluating the financial conditions of the firms. Recommendation The first and foremost recommendation to the management of Sainsbury is to operate their business in a strategic manner, which will enable them to beat Tesco in other areas as well. The management of Sainsbury needs to implement various strategies that will enable the firm to achieve a competitive advantage over Tesco. Meanwhile, Tesco has outperformed Sainsbury in the past, nut have failed to do the same in the recent years. Therefore, the management of Tesco needs to find out the loopholes that have created this problem in the recent time. Reference List Alzubaidi, R. (2014). Spreadsheets-based modelling for financial analysis ratios. International Journal of Economics and Accounting, 5(3), p.216 Baur, H. and Leuenberger, C. (2011). Analysis of Ratios, 60(6), pp.813-825 Bonett, D. and Price, R. (2015). Analysis Methods for Odds Ratios and Risk Ratios. Psychological Methods Bourke, A. (2009). Comparative Analysis of Investment Ratios. Evolution, 43(4), p.913 Chaudhuri, T. (2011). Analysis of the Profitability Ratios of HCL. SSRN Journal. Demonstratingvalue.org, (2015). Financial Ratio Analysis | Demonstrating Value. [online] Available at: https://www.demonstratingvalue.org/resources/financial-ratio-analysis [Accessed 15 Jul. 2015]. Heilbron, D. (2011). The Analysis of Ratios of Odds Ratios in Stratified Contingency Tables. Biometrics, 37(1), p.55 Hutton, Y. (2014). Odds Ratios Analysis. Technometrics, 41(2), pp.181-182. Ketz, J., Doogar, R. and Jensen, D. (2010). A cross-industry analysis of financial ratios. New York: Quorum Books. Murnick, D. and Peer, B. (2014). Analysis of ratios. Science, 263(5149), pp.945-947. Muro, V. (2012). Handbook of financial analysis for corporate managers. New York: AMACOM. Prentice, R. (2010). Regression on hazard ratios and cross ratios in multivariate failure time analysis. Biometrika, 84(2), pp.349-363. Romagnoli, A. (2011). Balance-Sheet Ratios and Stock Returns:. SSRN Journal. Sainsburys.co.uk, (2015). Sainsbury's. [online] Available at: https://www.sainsburys.co.uk/sol/index.jsp [Accessed 15 Jul. 2015] Tamari, M. (2011). Financial ratios. London: P. Elek. Tesco.com, (2015). Tesco.com - online shopping; bringing the supermarket to you - Every little helps. [online] Available at: https://www.tesco.com/ [Accessed 15 Jul. 2015] Troy, L. (2013). Almanac of business and industrial financial ratios. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. Ziegel, E. and Rudas, T. (2009). Odds Ratios in the Analysis of Contingency Tables. Technometrics, 41(2), p.181.

My First Day in America Essay Example For Students

My First Day in America Essay I am a foreign exchange student and have been here for three years. However, I still remember exactly how I felt on the first day I came to America, the day that I left my family behind to chase my dreams, the day my life has forever changed. Id wanted to go to America to study since I was about 14 years old because this modern country with freedom is all I could ever dream of. I would have many opportunities to complete my desired job in fashion. My parents thought I was too young to live here independently. Hence, I was not allowed to go until I finished my high school. A month before the day I interviewed for the United States visa, I was extremely nervous even I prepared for it thoroughly day and night. I studied hard to get a competitive transcript. I practiced the questions in order to have a perfect interview. I did everything I could to make sure I would not regret because it is hard to get a visa to America. The interview day finally came; luckily I got accepted right at the first time. I was really excited for a new life. I could travel to new places, eat new foods, and make new friends. I could leave my room messy without hearing my parents’ complaints. I could even make all the decisions by myself. The day I had to go has come and everything was totally different from what I imaged. I was so lonely. In America, I had a lot of connections but nothing could compare to my family at home. I used to walk on the streets by myself and eat dinner at tables for one. I felt lonely even when I went to the places where there are a lot of people like schools, grocery stores or parks. The funny thing is I could not drive a car without driver license as same as I did in Vietnam. I was like handicapped in first three months. I also had to get used to the new language because English was not commonly spoken in Vietnam. In other words, I had to start from zero and re-build everything. I had to learn how to live and carry out everyday activities like a child. My life was really miserable and lonely those days when I first stepped on America’s land. Yet life has gone on without me and to survive I have to adapt into the environment that I live. Nowadays, I have a couple of best friends and a stable life. However, I still remember exactly how I felt on the first days I came to America. It feels really blissful when I recall those memories. I prove that I did not give up on my life. I tried and am still trying for the best in my future. Thank you.

Use of IT tools in Road Management and Engineering Essay Example

Use of IT tools in Road Management and Engineering Essay The report presents the use of IT tools in the road management and engineering area. IT tools used in the road management and engineering area is the main approach worldwide. It can save time, cost, labor force and also perform some works that human may not be able to accomplish. HDM-4 and ARCADY are typical examples of computer programmes. HDM-4 aims at assisting engineers in predicting the future economic, technical, social and environmental outcomes of possible investment decisions concerning road assets. It provide assessments of the economic and environmental impact of investment choices and consider new development works, maintenance works and improvement works as possible investment choices. ARCADY can assist engineers in predicting accident rates in existing roundabouts and designing new roundabouts at an ordinary intersection. It can save much precious time for engineers in geometric design in avoiding iterations by hands. Examples of testing these two computer programmes we re performed. They justify the validity of both computer programmes in the road management and engineering area. However, nothing is perfect and the computer programmes also have drawbacks which will be discussed in this report. Contents Page Abstract We will write a custom essay sample on Use of IT tools in Road Management and Engineering specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Use of IT tools in Road Management and Engineering specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Use of IT tools in Road Management and Engineering specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer 1.0 Introduction 1 2.0 HDM-4 2-4 2.1 System Architecture 2 2.2 Road Management Function 2-4 2.2.1 Planning 3 2.2.2 Programming 3 2.2.3 Preparation 3 2.2.4 Operation 3-4 3.0 ARCADY 5 4 4.0 Test of HDM-4 and ARCADY 5 4-6 4.1 HDM-4 4-5 4.1.1 Results 5 4.2 ARCADY 5-6 4.2.1 Results 6 1.0 Introduction IT tools are widely used in many fields now. In the road management and engineering field, IT tools are especially vital and useful because road congestion and road accidents attribute billions of dollars in a country each year. For economical and environmental issues, uses of IT tools can efficiently reduce the social and economic loss due to the congestion and accidents, and mitigate the environmental impact from vehicles. The Highway Development and Management Tools (HDM-4) is a software system for investigating choices in investing in road transport infrastructure. It was developed on the basis of HDM-3. These choices may include developing new roads, improving existing roads, maintaining existing roads, introducing new vehicle technology and introducing new ways for funding and managing road assets. It will enable managers of road network assets to investigate the possibilities for providing cost-effective development and upkeep of their road system, which brings benefits to the communities that they serve. ARCADY is a popular computer programme for designing roundabouts in UK. It can design a new roundabout at an intersection; predict capacities, queue lengths, delays and accident risk at existing roundabouts. It is very important in road engineering for designing roundabouts quickly since time is very important in an engineering field. 2.0 HDM-4 HDM-4 is a decision support software system for assisting road managers to predict future economic, technical, social and environmental outcomes of possible investment decisions concerning road assets, and consider new development works, maintenance works and improvement works as possible investment choices and allow to consider investments on a single section of road, or a large network of road links (many sections), or any combination of road sections in a sub-network. For example, traffic volume and composition, deterioration of the road condition, the effect of works on road condition, the effect of the investment on vehicle emissions and the effect of condition and road works on road users, in terms of vehicle operating performance and costs, road user and cargo time delay and costs, accident rates and costs can be predicted. 2.1 System Architecture The HDM-4 technology can be integrated with present and future road management systems. It has been developed at three levels which are the knowledge and algorithms embodied in the modelling of technical, and economic performance of road infrastructure, the program modules which deliver the models in explicit terms, and the HDM-4 software, including the modelling modules, which provides the investment analysis and works programming functions (PIARC, 2000). The system architecture consists of a database, data managers, models and analysis tools. A database manages the input data and analysis results while data managers are software which provides the user interface and controls data. Models are software modules which reflect modeling algorithms, and analysis tools controls the system application (PIARC, 2000). 2.2 Road Management Functions The HDM-4 provides a powerful system for the analysis of road management and investment alternatives. The system can be applied to road management, programming road works, estimating funding requirements, budget allocations, predicting road network performance, project appraisal, policy impact studies and a wide range of special applications. 2.2.1 Planning HDM-4 can analyze the road system as a whole in medium to long term, or strategic, estimates of expenditure for road development and preservation under various budget and economic scenarios. Predictions can be made of road network conditions under different funding levels in terms of key indicators together with forecasts of required expenditure under defined budget. The results of the planning exercise are of most interest to senior policy makers in the roads sector in both political and professional means. The HDM-4 application in the planning level is always performed by strategy analysis. 2.2.2 Programming Programming involves the preparation of multi-year roadwork and expenditure programmes in which sections of the network needs maintenance, improvement or new construction, are selected and analyzed. Ideally, cost-benefit analysis should be undertaken to determine the economic feasibility of each set of works. The programming activity produces estimates of expenditure in each year, under defined budget, for different types of roadwork and for each road section. The HDM-4 application in the programming level is programming analysis. 2.2.3 Preparation This is the short-term planning stage where road schemes are packaged for implementation. At this stage, designs are refined and prepared in more details; bills of quantities and detailed costing are made, together with work instructions and contracts. Detailed specifications and costing are defined, and detailed cost-benefit analysis can be carried out to confirm the feasibility of the final scheme. The HDM-4 application in the preparation level is project analysis. 2.2.4 Operations Decisions about the management of operations are generally made on a daily or weekly basis, including the scheduling of work to be carried out, monitoring of labours, equipments and materials, the recording of work completed, and use of this information for monitoring and control. 3.0 ARCADY 5 ARCADY (Assessment of Roundabout Capacity and Delay) has been developed over the last 20 years by TRL (Transport Research Laboratory) and is used for predicting capacities, queue lengths, delays and accident risk at roundabouts. ARCADY is a user friendly and helpful tool to aid the busy traffic engineer in designing new roundabouts as well as assessing the effects of modifying existing designs. It can design a roundabout and predict the accident rates automatically within a short time. It can also avoid the iteration process by hand to save much time. Thus, ARCADY is very convenient and important in road engineering. ARCADY 5 is the most recent evolution of a program that has been successfully used to design and re-design thousands of roundabouts throughout the world. ARCADY 5s main platform is graphical under standard Windows* environment, which is common to many organizations including governments, multi-national organizations and universities. ARCADY is based on empirical relationships derived from the study of many UK roundabouts. The capacity relationships were established from a database covering 11,000 minutes of at capacity operation at 86 roundabout entries, and the accident prediction routine is based on 431 injury accidents at 84 roundabouts. Capacity and injury accident rates are linked directly to intersection geometry. The entire UK government, funded research programme, carried out at TRL, cost some and 7.5m or US$ 11.5m at todays values, and gives ARCADY robustness (TRL Software Bureau, 2003). 4.0 Test of HDM-4 and ARCADY-5 4.1 HDM-4 In the Highway Development and Management Series, Kerali (2000) presented an example of the analysis of HDM-4. The national road authority has drawn up a list of candidate road sections for periodic maintenance and improvement over the next three years in Western Province. The list of candidate road sections follows a review of pavement condition surveys carried out by consultants. There is a policy that the candidate projects are prioritized and selected for the maintenance programme in the three-year budget period. The objective of the task is to prioritize the candidates according to the economic benefits basis. The HDM-4 imports data from the Pavement Management System or use the HDM-4 Road Network manager to create the candidate road sections. It also defines the characteristics of the vehicles that use the road network and specify the traffic growth rates. The maintenance and improvement standards are assigned to the candidate road sections together with the unit costs. Afterwards, the road works can be determined. The unconstrained work programme results give the total funding required for the list of candidate road sections. Finally, HDM-4 can carry out the budget optimization to prioritize and select the short list of projects that can be carried out within the available budget. 4.1.1 Results The analyses indicate that the selected road sections for periodic maintenance and road improvement would require approximately US$11.345 million over the three year budget period. 4.2 ARCADY 5 ARCADY calculations can be applied to single island roundabouts with up to seven arm. The user has a choice of methods of entering traffic flows and the program can estimate the shape of the peak according to the amount of data available. The safety of a design can be tested using ARCADYs accident predictions. Accident prediction is available for all conventional and mini-roundabouts layouts. The program can be applied to single-island roundabouts with 3 to 7 arms and now mini-roundabouts. Both at-grade and grade-separated roundabouts can be modelled. Pedestrian crossings (zebra crossing type) can be included, and the queue lengths can be viewed, animated and printed. Roundabout capacity studies by Highways Agencys Compendium of Research from 1993 to 1996 with the project value of à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½300,000 was carried out to check the continuing validity of the existing ARCADY relationships for conventional roundabouts and to derive capacity relationships for mini-roundabouts. The outputs were to be implemented in a new release of ARCADY incorporating both capacity and accident relationships for mini-roundabouts. It is 15 to 20 years since the capacity relationships used in the ARCADY computer program were established; corresponding capacity relationships for mini-roundabouts have never been separately determined. 4.2.1 Results The checks on capacities at conventional roundabouts have been found to be still valid (Highways Agencys Compendium of Research, 2003). Minor areas where further research work could give useful benefits have been identified. Related work on mini-roundabouts was brought to a successful conclusion. 5.0 Discussion The main approach of HDM-4 is usually biased to the economic approach because it is mainly applied in the network and program level which focus on the economic area. Therefore, it may not be very practical in real situation. For example, when evaluating the maintenance of a pavement in a long term period, it may estimate that the pavement only needs one major rehabilitation in the period. However, it is impractical to have a large funding for the rehabilitation in a short period such as one year. It may not be allowed in such a large amount such as millions of pounds in a year. Therefore, in practice, a major rehabilitation should be modified to several smaller ones around that period. It may be easier for funding in several times for several rehabilitations over a longer period. That shows planners or engineers must ensure the results obtained from HDM-4 practical in real before implementation because computer programmes can only give us the results under ideal conditions which are always impossible in our real world. Also, another drawback for the application of the HDM Model is the availability of adequate data. It is important that the highway agencies realize how critical it is to collect and process the required data in order to produce sound results. A specific budget should be assigned for this task if consistent and serious results are wanted. Collection of data is an expensive activity and it may not be possible for every road assets. ARCADY was justified to be still valid for different types of roundabouts. It can effectively assist highway engineers in assessing the existing roundabouts for safety or any possible improvement, and designing a new roundabout from an ordinary intersection in order to alleviate the heavy right turn movement. It also includes crash prediction model based on UK equation. The software is backed by TRL and thus the validity of it can be ensured by numbers of research. However, it required detailed knowledge of geometrics such as approach length, approach curvature and entry width and so on. It is also restricted to about 50% confidence limits and the calibration to U.S. capacity is still unknown at this time. 6.0 Conclusions IT tools bring many advantages and convenience to our lives. It shortens the gap between people and time required from place to place. It makes the world run faster with better quality. . They always play major roles in many fields such as construction, banking and design, etc. There are many computer programmes used for road management and engineering. HDM-4 and ARCADY are typical examples in this field. HDM-4 mainly performs its functions in road management in making decision for the future improvement of road assets in network and project level. It can predict the different impacts. Making decision related to cost is very important since budget is always limited and so prioritization is always necessary. The prioritization can be determined by HDM-4, and the budget and resource can be effectively allocated. ARCADY can perform its functions in road engineering in geometric design and accident rate prediction. It has the advantages of time saving, accuracy and clear presentation over human capability in design by hands. Accuracy is very important in geometric design since it can directly affect the road users. Therefore, it can increase the degree of road safety which is always the most important issue in road traffic. ARCADY has been developed to ARCADY 5 and this latest version was tested to be still valid in performing its functions effectively. Practical uses of both computer programmes also show their validities in the areas in many projects but further analyses are still necessary for overcoming the drawbacks.

Lord Of The Flies Play Essays - English-language Films, Films

Lord Of The Flies Play Essays - English-language Films, Films Lord Of The Flies Play 29/1/00 M3 Lord of the Files( Review) The theatre version of Lord of the Flies based on the novel by William Golding and adapted by Nigel Williams are now being presented in the Lyric Theatre Hammersmith, London. Tickets cost about 7.00. This review is comparing the book and how Nigel Williams adapted it. The theatre version of Lord of the Flies is very good. Interesting and always in the climax. The actors are not little kids and there are not lots of them. There are only 8 actors. Some of the actors take 2 or 3 roles. The adult actors acted like a bunch of kids, which was very effective. The way the stage is set out was terrific, the moves around and about on the stage were really planned out well. The stage is a wrecked plane broken in to 2 parts. Actors used up all the stage. See diagram. For example when it is the mountain scene the fire on top of the shelter is lit up and the movable part is facing towards us with the highest point towards the audience. When simon is running down the mountain the movable parts were facing with the lowest point towards us so that it creates a downhill effect. Piggy was a very good actor. The person who took the role of piggy really sounded like piggy.(cockney accent). Some of Piggys lines were cut out and the way the Piggy died was totally different. Ralph was played by a good actor. The actor was really active, hyper, and was very childlike. He was serious and sometimes fun like in the book. Jack was not what I expected. The entrance of the choir was very good but Jacks voice was just to high pitched and annoying. If Jack were a bit more serious and manly he would have been the perfect actor. Jack sounded too childish. Simon was a very good actor. He was interesting. I taught that the actor had the potential to be like Ralph but because he plays Simon he doesnt talk that much. The way he did was very good and interesting. The others chased him so that he is going up the mountain but then he gets killed. They move the movable parts and the body slides down for jack to take off stage. Overall the play was very good just as the book. Bu if youre lazy and dont like reading this is highly recommended. But still it is recommended to every one ages 13 - as old as the oldest person in the world. Bibliography the Play Production in the lyric theater in london

Paper on Language Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Paper on Language - Essay Example Another more recent definition of language is given by Michael Holiday. According to him: "Language is a range of possibilities, an open-ended set of options in behavior that are available to the individual in his existence as social man. The context of culture is the environment of any particular selection that is made from within them ... The context of culture defines the potential, the range of possibilities that are open. The actual choice among these possibilities takes place within a given context of situation." This definition is much more encompassing as it highlights that language is not just through the use of vocal or oral symbols but a range of possibilities. Man communicates through speech, writing, and still other means are introduced in this digital age. A human also engage in non-verbal communication through his actions and entire behavior. Holiday also asserts that language can only fully understood in the context of the culture of the speaker or his lexicon. Lexicon is defined as the "knowledge of that the speaker has about a language." This includes information about the form and meaning of the words and phrases, lexical categorization, the appropriate usage of words, relationship between words and phrases, and categories of words and phrases. b. Evaluate the key features of language. The understanding of language can be acquired by evaluating its key features (Design features of Language 2007). 1. Duality of patterning is a basic principle in human language. This feature of language provides an economic way for human beings to create an infinite set of linguistic units. It should be noted that the individual sounds comprising language is meaningless in themselves. Yet, these sounds can be combined together in other to become produce an infinite number of "meaningful utterances." 2. Displacement refers to the unique sense of time in human beings. As opposed to animals, humans have the ability to separate the past from the future and can talk about these time spheres. 3. Open-endedness describes the ability of humans to add new words to the current set of words. This is illustrated by the words which are coined according to our new experiences and innovations which augment, enhance, and even modify our language. 4. Arbitrariness refers to the lack of "natural or essential relationship" between to the words and the objects they refer to. This also highlights that the meaning of the words are constructed through social conventions. 5. Vocal-auditory channel is the feature of human language which sets it apart from animals. Human's communication is through the ears and the mouth and not through other channels like nose or eyes. c. Describe the four levels of language structure and processing. There are four levels of language structure and processing namely, grammar, logic, semantics, and general semantics. Grammar relations refer to the words to words relationship within a sentence without considering the relation of each sentence to another. Logic takes a step further by looking at the statement to statement relationships by evaluating subjects and predicates in an

((((6))))) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

((((6))))) - Essay Example ademic methods and academic content in curricula but still emphasize to them how important it is to meet the specific needs of the children without necessarily violating the stipulated curriculum. I will inform them their role in helping the children attain the specific components through play and interactive learning and how this helps children attain components such as phonological awareness and comprehend meaning. Learning in my developmentally appropriate preschool classroom will be an interactive affair where preschoolers will freely engage in conversations to acquire oral skills and also participate in plays that will help them interact with the environment to develop cognitive skills. The preschool parents I cross-examined seemed to favor a classroom where their children will be learning literacy skills such as mathematics and sciences. However, they also held the idea that children should be given sometime to play and socialize. They would like the teacher to give personalized attention to children with learning difficulties and give them the opportunity to portray their artistic skills in activities such as modeling and drawing. The parents favor a type of classroom that is physical classroom where both indoors and outdoor activities are undertaken with utter importance. The classroom should have an apmle space for the teacher to interact and help the child. Apparently, this diligently ties with the DAP ideas presented in chapter 15 where more attention should be given to not only academic development, but also exploration of the environment, opportunity/space to manipulate, time to play and time to sleep. Parents seem to realize that play and socialization/interaction are important for the healthy growth and development of

The History Of Cnc Machines

The History Of Cnc Machines Before the advent of NC machines, operator had to manipulate the hand-wheels, levers, cams to make parts. This way the ability of the operator to make the parts with required narrow tolerance was limited. There were all possibilities of some variation resulting into variation of the axis dimensions resulting into poor fittings or wastages. The productivity of the worker was low so it was a dire need to operate the machine automatically. Earlier a series of cams were put to use to move the tools as an attempt to automate the process. Though they were tedious to set but once set it gave good precision, which were what later on known as Swiss machines or precision machines. (Wildes 1985) MIT Servomechanisms Laboratory gives a good account of pioneering effort on development of numerical control of machine tools, which is as under (History of the MIT Servomechanisms Laboratory). A significant postwar project that began in 1949 and continued and evolved through the 1950s was the work that led to numerical control of machine tools. Under a contract with the Parsons Company of Michigan, William M. Pease and James O. McDonough designed an experimental numerically-controlled milling machine which received directions through data on punched paper tape. The first working model of a continuous-path numerically-controlled milling machine was demonstrated in 1952. Further research was then carried out under the sponsorship of the U.S. Air Force. Subsequently, the laboratorys Computer Application Group, led by Douglas T. Ross, developed the Automatically Programmed Tool Language (APT), an easy-to-use, special purpose programming language. Eventually, APT became the world standard for programming computer-controlled machine tools. Parsons NC Milling Machine After World War II, Parsons was busy in developing rotor blades for aviation industry. For its complexity involved in shape, it was an uphill task to achieve precision, which was an utmost requirement. With his connections with an IBM computer, he realized that it is quite possible to produce accurate contour guides, which was hitherto difficult with manual calculations. Soon he received a contract with Air force to supply an automatic contour cutting machine for production of large wing section pieces for aircraft. He successfully developed a machine, which produced parts with accuracy and precision required by the aviation industry. Meanwhile, MIT researchers were doing developmental work with various kinds of control processes. They had already done some work with Air Force Projects during World War II. With the active association of MIT, Parsons experimented with servomotors to the x and y axis and successfully controlled them using computer that read punch-cards to process instructions. This made possible to machine complex shapes required for aviation industry. With a manual milling machine it was never possible and that is how he developed the NC milling machine. (Olivo 1987) After most pioneering efforts by Parsons and MIT researchers the ball set rolling for further growth and development of NC/CNC in the later years to come. CNC Generations Broad CNC generations classification can be done with regard to the development of CNC machine as under (CNC-Web-handout): 1952 1st generation NC, The first NC controlled machine for metal processing (relays and electronic tubes) 1960 2nd generation NC, relays and electronic tubes was replaced with transistors. 1965 3rd generation, integrated circuits 4th generation NC CNC (computerized numerical Control CNC Machines) In the first and second generation NC machines, controller received a set of instructions known as programme consisted of alphanumeric characters. Through these instructions, controller regulated the motions of a machine tool such as a lathe, milling machine, cutter. Preparation of programme was done with the very basic computers and then made available to the controller via a tape. At that time, Magnetic tape recorders and floppy disk drives were used for storage and recording purposes for the programme and as such no direct links were provided between the computer and controller. Controllers tape reader used to read these recorded programmes. For the purpose of debugging the programme and correcting the errors, it was necessary to have a new tape and several of such tapes were needed before an error-free programme was made. Further, for any modification or engineering changes one was forced to prepare a new tape and so on. (Siegel 1956) Historical Events in the Evolution of NC/CNC Machines Let us peep into the past for more specific developments in reference to NC/CNC machines, its components and important accessories, which culminated into the modern day CNCs. 1950- MIT servo mechanism lab developed Numerical Control (NC) milling machine 1952-Parsons filed for a patent on Motor Controlled Apparatus for Positioning Machine Tool. The date was 5 May, 1952 1953- Using a magnetic-tape playback system, a digital control system named Numericord was developed in April 1953 by joint effort of GL, MIT and General Electric Co. (Cuttingtoolengineering 2005) 1955- NC machines commercial version was on display at Chicago Machine Tool Show. In the show, several NC machines were on display, which were punched cards or punched paper tapes driven. (Cuttingtoolengineering 2005) 1955- IBM developed automatic tool changer. (Cuttingtoolengineering 2005) 1955-Numericord NC5 was found into operation at GLs plant at Fond du Lac, WI. (History of Computer Aided Manufacturing) 1956- A year of automatic programming of NC machining. 5.1 APT Developed Douglas Ross made pioneering efforts to put automatic programming of NC machining. Being a mathematician at MIT, Ross had gone to the ServoMechanism Laboratory to work with computer systems for high-speed data processing. His research converged to the development of the Automatically Programmed Tool (APT) system. (Upping Input Speed: automating NC. Cuttingtoolengineering 2005,) Ross believed that programmer should be able to convey his or her machining instructions in a simple English kind language, which is at times rational and can be modified based on experience. Thus, Ross had removed the last significant technological impediment to utilization of NC by the manufacturing industry on a broad scale. The development of APT was a major turning point in the evolution of NC, because it settled once and for all the issue of whether or not NC could be made economically viable in the light of programming costs, Reintjes said. Justifiably then, the APT language became the U.S. standard for programming NC machine tools in 1974, and became the international standard in 1978. (Upping Input Speed: automating NC. Cuttingtoolengineering 2005) 1957- GL introduced its first 5-axis Variax NC profilers. (History of Computer Aided Manufacturing) 1957- GLs (Giddings and Lewis Machine Tool Co) produced first miller (History of Computer Aided Manufacturing) 1957- A year of first CAM software system, an NC programming tool named PRONTO. Farnum, Gregory (2005) distinctly quotes contribution of Dr. Patrick Hanratty and term him as a father of CAD/CAM and categorically mentions, Then theres the guy who is often called the father of CAD/CAM, Dr.Patrick Hanratty. Among other contributions to the field, Hanratty, in 1957, developed the first commercial CAM software system, an NC programming tool named PRONTO. Of course, if one can digitally create patterns in space to guide a machine tool, one can do the same thing for other machinery as well, a fact that wasnt lost on the fledgling robotics industry and builders of other types of industrial equipment. Thus, the direct link between CNC and CAM. 1958- The first commercial NC machining centre with an automatic toolchanger and automatic work positioning. The company was Kearney Trecker Corp., Milwaukee and product was Milwaukee-Matic II. (Makely 2005) 1960- First controller with transistor technology introduced. (Groover 2007) 1960- Direct Numerical Control (DNC) eliminated paper tape punch programmes and allowed programmers to send files directly from computer to machine tool controller. (Groover 2007) 1963- A true CAD software, namely sketchpad, evolved. (Cuttingtoolengineering 2005) 1965- CAD drafting and the sculptured surfaces developed (Cuttingtoolengineering 2005) 1967- Use of integrated circuits (ICs) in NC reduced 90 percent components and 80 percent wiring connections. (Groover, 2007) The use of integrated circuits can be considered as a major breakthrough in the evolution of CNC machines as mentioned by Makely (2005) as per the following. But true maturity in NC development, according to Paul Warndorf, vice president of technology at AMT-the Association for Manufacturing Technology, didnt come until the development of integrated circuits replaced vacuum tubes with more efficient, more reliable. (Numbers Take Control: NC machines Cuttingtoolengineering 2005) 1968- First machining centre by Kearney and Trecker (machine tool builders) marketed. (Groover, 2007) 1970s- CNC machine tool developed. (Groover, 2007) Farnum (2005) describes how CAD could make the application of CNC machine tools for variety of applications. He states: As the 70s progressed, the increasing power of computers, and the introduction of lower-cost minicomputers, made CAD accessible to a wider array of users. A host of CAD companies, many of them still in existence today, arose to meet the growing demand. This trend was furthered by the emergence of powerful UNIX workstations and PCs in the early 1980s, along with the growing power of the CAD systems themselves. Today, its hard to imagine a manufacturing firm without a CAD/CAM system or the ability to transfer digital data to CNC machine tools. (Farnum 2005) 1972- Major development of the CAD/CAM machines evolved (Minimizing Movement: multitasking. Controltoolengineering 2005) The development on CAD/CAM made possible multitasking on CNCs, thus improving the productivity to manifold. Jim Cordier, a veteran of 48 years in engineering and customer service at Hardinge Inc., Elmira, N.Y., said multitasking evolved because you wanted to do more and more with one setup. If you do a part complete in one setup, you made a more accurate part and did it quicker. (Numbers Take Control: NC machines. Cuttingtoolengineering 2005) 1976- 3D CAM/CAD systems were introduced (History of Computer Aided Manufacturing) 1980s- Graphics based computer application developed. (Groover, Mikell P.2007) 1989- Expert CAM/CAD systems were developed (History of Computer Aided Manufacturing) 1997- PC window based Open Modular Architecture Control (OMAC) systems introduced to replace firmware controllers. (Groover, 2007) A History of 5-Axis CNC Machines When someone tries to trace the history of 5-Axis Machine, it goes to even before NC as Herrin (1995) tries to convey in his article History of 5-axis machining. The some of the excerpts is mentioned from his above article. The history of 5-axis machining goes back even before NC. My first exposure to it was in 1958 on a project funded by the U.S. Air Force for the purpose of evaluating the feasibility of 5-axis machining. Cincinnati Milacron, then Cincinnati Milling Machine Co., was awarded a contract to build and test an electronic tracing version of a 5-axis vertical mill. He further describes that four major technologies that were critical to the success of 5-axis machines are: machine, control hardware, control software, and part programming software. He further opines that considerable improvement in the computer hardware is the reason that has made CNC designers to provide for advanced capability to meet the requirements of 5-axis applications at a reasonable cost. (Herrin 1995) 6.1 Why 5-axis Machines Three axis CNC machines define its ability to perform the task and movement along the three different axes simultaneously. Those are X, Y, and Z. Axis parallel to the tool spindle is known as Z axis. Three axis CNC machines work on sculptured or tapered surfaces. It is not possible to work on the complex jobs like tapping, internal holes on complex surfaces with variable curvatures. Certain limitations of three axis machine forced the developer to think about the five-axis machine which has varied application in myriad of industries. Five-axis machines are built by adding two axes that rotate around either Y or Z axis. There are mainly three types of 5-axis machines. (A). A Dedicated 5-axis Machining Centre. The biggest drawback with such machines is that their range of motion is limited to +/- 30 degrees. When it is needed to have steeper angle of cut, manual intervention is required. They are not as rugged as three-axis machines (B). A Tilting/Rotary Table Type A tilting-rotary table is mounted to the bed of a (three-axis) CNC machine. They are available in the market for several years. Advantage is that they can be used by small and big shops alike for many machining jobs. The good thing is that it provides possibility to tilt the part at various angles and thus machining is possible at various sides of the part resulting to the real five-axis machining. However, tilting-rotary table machines exert limit on workpiece with regard to its width, weight, length, height. Besides, tilting tables are very large and cover up host machines working space in large amount. At times, it reduces the work space by as much as 75 percent. They are good for smaller parts. They pose a difficulty in holding the part when heavy cutting operations are to be carried out. Size of the workpiece and its weight pose a limitation for machining in these types of machines. (C). Spindle Head Attachments Type The major benefit of a spindle head attachment is that it has full access of the machining centres working envelope. There is no restriction on the size of the workpiece required to be machined. They are fully programmable and any three-axis machine can be converted to a real five-axis machining centre. It is possible to add tilting capability of +/- 90 degrees. It can also have full rotary motion of 360-degree. The attachment can convert any 3-axis machine to 5-axis machine in less than 30 minutes. Since this head attachment is portable, it provides flexibility and rigidity of three-axis machine and work well for machining of variety of jobs. Because this unique head is portable and can be mounted in less than 30 minutes, it allows the owner to benefit from the accuracy and rigidity of the three-axis mill for significant metal removal then mount the attachment to complete five-axis profiling, holes, pockets, etc. The cost is similar to that of the larger tilt-rotary tables. 6.2 The Benefits of Machining with Five Axes It eliminates a need to have multiple setups for refitting the workpiece at different angles. This definitely saves time and reduces errors. It also eliminates the need to have costly fixtures, tooling for holding the workpiece in place. The complex jobs like tapping, internal holes on a complex surfaces can be machined that are otherwise not possible. Five-axis technology also eliminates multiple setups required to re-position the workpiece at complex angles. This not only saves time, but greatly reduces errors and costly tooling and fixture expenses required to hold the workpiece in place. It also provides the ability to machine complex parts that are not otherwise possible-including holes, pockets and tapping required to be normal to a complex surface. To a mold maker, it provides following benefits. Machining time greatly reduced by using a flat bottom end mill by using full diameter of the cutter Side milling of the angled surfaces can be done with less number of passes on the complex surface. Much better surface finish can be achieved eliminating ribbing from ball-nose end mills. Cut down time and labour on manual millwork/handwork required to clean up convex or concave kellered surfaces. Why CNC Became so Important? Swamidass (2002) has distinctly defined the need of CNC machines stating: A CNC machine tool is a self-contained machine, where the tool-cutting movements, spindle speeds, tool exchange and other operations are controlled by a part programme executed by the computer controlled based at the machine tool. The machine design which holds the tool used to cut into the work piece. Conventional machine tools (lathes, drill presses, milling machines) are not computer controlled. The operation is done by skilled craftsman. There can be variations to dimensions on parts made on a conventional tool. The elimination of this variation is one objective (benefit) of automating the discreet part production process. The Historic Developments and Its Significance on CNC Machines It is important to understand that why all these mile stone achievements were so significant in overall evolution of CNC machines. Let us take some of them. 8.1 CNC Control A programme is interpreted by CNC Control. It activates the series of commands in given sequence and will initiate required function, set motion for axis and carry out necessary instructions mentioned in the programme. This amply proves that how important controller is in overall functioning of the CNC machines. State-of-the-art present day CNC Controls carry out several other functions like editing the programme due to some error. It also has a dry run to check and verify the correctness of programme. Moreover, it also allows operator to provide certain important inputs separate from the programme such as tool length values. In short, it controls all the functions of the machine and keeps track of it as and when needed. 8.2 Changing the Tool Automatically Centres have capacity to hold many tools in a tool magazine. As per the requirement tool can be automatically placed in the spindle for machining. 8.3 Spindle Speed and Activation The spindle can be turned in a forward and reverse direction and speed can be notified in RPM. When required, it can be turned off. 8.4 CAM System For a simple application, the CNC programme can be developed manually by operator, which is also the best way to develop the programmes. When it comes to more complicate applications, it becomes tedious and difficult to write the programme. There comes a CAM (a computer aided manufacturing) system into picture. CAM is a software programme, which runs on a computer and helps CNC programmer to complete the programming process. It can also work with CAD developed by the companys design and engineering department. Machine operator has to specify the machining operations and based on that CAM will have created the CNC programme as if it is written manually saving time, effort and complexities of the functions. (Momingstar 1993) DNC System Once the programme is developed, it is required to be loaded into the CNC control. But when available memory on CNC controller is not sufficient to accept the programme then the need of DNC (distributive numerical control) comes into the picture. It was like a computer device that used to be connected to one or several CNC machines. However, with the advent of PCs during the 1990s ended the utility of DNC controls. (Momingstar 1993) Current CNC Machines Todays CNC are much faster and offers automation features, which were never heard before. With modern machining centre axis-positioning requirements have specifically increased and tool management functions have become more complex. This forces to have far greater processing power to manage many complex functions. Caussin (1999) has given a very good account of the controls that CNCs are capable for and they are described as under: 9.1 The Heart of CNC-Motion Control CNC machines are known for their automation, precision and consistent motion controls. CNC machines use motion control in a way, which can be called as revolutionary. Motions could be either linear or rotary. In conventional machine tools, these motions are caused by the use of cranks and handwheels. But the programmed commands initiate the motion in CNC machines. The motion type, motion rate (feed rate), motion type and which-axis-to-move all that are programmed with CNC machine tools. A CNC command conveys the drive motor to rotate specific number of times, which causes the rotation of the ball screw. The ball screw, in turn, moves to the linear axis. A feedback device confirms that specified number of rotations have taken place. . 9.2 CNC Speed and Feed Rates Now a days, dual processors or even parallel processors are in demands to increase the processing speed. It can notify the broken tools and necessary inspection can be done at machine centre itself. Parallel processors are employed to increase the speed of complex task. It is capable to change the feed rates based on the spindle load parameters. This reduces the required processing time. Further, depending upon the actual tool load, it can control and monitor the feed rate so as to avoid any damage to the tool. A feed rate will also determine when to change the tool when it reduces to the less than certain percentage of the normal. 9.3 Voltage Fluctuation and Loads They can also monitor voltage fluctuations to decide if a tool has broken. CNC can locate if some catastrophic problem is there with the tool and it will shut down the process. 9.4 Probing It can probe in a variety of ways to reduce setup time, as many controls have number of setup features like diameter offsets and tool length. That is to say that with an automated tool offset feature, it can set offsets for number of tools in a few minutes. Probes also facilitate setting the Z fixture offset automatically for speedy processes. It also allows setting for the X-Y axes automatically by imparting an appropriate programmeme. While machining a casting, it is required to verify the datum point and there also a probe will save considerable time. A feature known as rotation searching will probe the casting and work out the angle of difference and rotate the programme accordingly. Off line inspection of parts is a time consuming process but here also CNC will allow the use of a probe and verify its measurements. By probing a part it can also ascertain tool wear for its replacement. CNC can be programmed so that the tool will be probed as part of the machining cycle. It is so automatic that as the tool touches the probe, the next tool is loaded and the machining goes on. If it does not touch the probe then programme stops further machining. 9.5 Better Axis Synchronization State-of-the-art technology of the present day CNCs offer better control and make possible the synchronization of the Z axis with the spindle and rest of the system. That results into the possibility of rigid tapping which delivers high level of accuracy. Perfect synchronization between X-Y and Z axes makes helical interpolation possible so that very cost-effective threading on holes over 1 inch can be carried out. It also makes possible threads in blind holes, pipe threads and threads in holes in odd-shaped parts. 9.6 Connectivity Present day CNCs offer possibility to communicate with other processors. This saves a lot of time of the operator to set communication parameters from his PC to the machining centre. Nowadays CNCs offer the capacity to connect to the internet. Companies with global operations are greatly benefitted from this so that they can transfer their programmers to other locations. So todays CNCs provide a very high level of automation. Any skillful operator can use all the the features to increase his own and companys productivity. The Future of CNC The future development of CNCs will always depend upon the other technologies, which are developing simultaneously. Even innovators like John Parsons and others never thought of the present day achievements of CNC machines. At that time, they could not have visualized in their dreams that we would have colour graphics, high speed mega hertz microprocessors, touch screen CRTs and so on. Similarly it is difficult to visualize for us now how new technologies will develop in the next 20-30 years. However, one common factor that can be described is a need based development and innovation, which will not only continue but will have an accelerated pace. Vonasek (2009) interviewed many industry experts and described some of the possible future developments, which can be listed as under. CNC machines with more integration toward loading and unloading systems. Integration between CAD programmes and the CAM software for the machine, making connection between workpiece production and actual product development more feasible. More energy efficient and increased productivity. Faster and more powerful drive systems with even greater accuracy. CNC routers with more application Conclusions As science will make inroads in artificial intelligence, it is quite likely that future CNC machines will turn more and more user friendly but that will come with a cost attached to it. The sophistication will bring many new features but affordability will be a big question for many small and medium sized companies. However, in all likelihood basic CNC machines with 3-axis movements will be a preferred choice for common applications, which do not come under purview of high-tech areas. The future of CNCs is extremely exciting and rewarding. It can be said that CNCs have always been the back bone of engineering industries and will remain like that for future years to come.